Aircraft Position Lights

Airplane Lighting
During night hours, no person shall operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position lights. These are referred to as Navigation Lights or commonly known as Position Lights. Navigation lights don’t actually help the pilot navigate. They are used to help pilots to locate and determine the relative position of other aircraft nearby in the air.

Each light has a different colour, and each light has an assigned place on the airplane. These universally defined colours and locations of the lights on an aircraft help pilots to determine if other aircraft are approaching or flying away, and their direction of flight. At night time, other aircraft would not be visible if they did not have lights. The navigation lights help pilots to determine if other aircraft are coming or going, and their relative position and direction.

Steady, Coloured Lights
The Left wing tip has a steady red light, and the right wing tip has a steady green light. The tail has a steady white light mounted as far aft as possible. These navigation or position lights are steady (non flashing) lights, and they must be visible from 2 miles.

Other Lights
In addition to the position lights, there will be other lights such as a landing light, fuselage lights, and anti-collision lights on an airplane. A landing light is often mounted on the leading edge of the wing. Anti-collision lights are also mounted in prominent locations on the aircraft such as the wing tips and the top of the tail.

Starboard Wing Tip Light
You can see the Green Navigation Light and also the Anti-Collision Strobe Light mounted in the right (starboard) wing tip of this airplane. The clear lens cover creates the form of the leading edge wing tip that houses these navigation and anti-collision lights.

Anti-Collision Lights
The anti-collision lights typically consist of white strobe lights or a red rotating beacon. Anti-collision lights are high intensity flashing lights that may be red, white or red/white segmented. These anti-collision lights must be visible through a 360 degree radius.

The pilot may turn off the anti-collision lights in some situations, such as hazy conditions at night. In conditions such as haze or dense cloud, the strobe light may cause a serious distraction or possible flicker vertigo effect on the pilot or passengers. Strobe lights have been known to induce epileptic seizures when individuals are exposed to the the intense flashing lights in close proximity. The pilot in command may temporarily turn off the anti-collision lights in situations where they feel a serious risk is present.

Port Wine is Red!
Here’s a great memory aid to help student pilots remember which side of the aircraft is Port, and which side is Starboard, and the colours of each.

Port Wine is red in colour. Therefore, the Port Side is always the Red Navigation Light. The Starboard side must therefore be the Green Navigation Light. In addition, “Port” is a four letter word. “Left” is also a four letter word. Therefore, “Port” matches up with “Left”. Both words are exactly four letters in length. Therefore, it’s easy to remember that the Port Side is the Left Side. (Port and Left are both 4 letters long)

Easy to Remember:

• Port Wine is Red. Therefore, Port Nav Light is Red.
• “Port” is 4 letters long, and “Left” is 4 letters long. Therefore, Port is Left. 
• Port = Red = Left
• By process of elimination: Starboard = Green = Right

Cessna 172 Tail Lights
Here we see the Tail of a Cessna 172 aircraft. The Red Beacon Anti-Collision Light is mounted on the top of the tail where it is visible through 360 degrees. Mounted at the most aft position of the tail (right in the picture) we see the white Navigation (Position) Light.

The Red Anti-Collision Light is a Rotating Red Beacon Light. This powerful flashing light can be seen from a great distance and helps to alert other pilots to the presence of the aircraft to help avoid collision.

The Navigation Lights are steady lights. Therefore, the White Nav Light is a steady (non-flashing) light used to help other pilots identify the relative position of the aircraft in the sky at night. If you see the white navigation light, you will know you are looking at the tail of the aircraft, and the airplane must therefore be pointed away from you and not coming towards you.

Navigation Lights - Viewing Angles
The Navigation Lights are mounted on the aircraft in a very specific manner to ensure the exact field of view or viewing angles for each nav light.

Red and Green Nav Lights
The Red and Green Navigation Lights are visible from dead ahead (visible from front of aircraft) through 110 degrees to the side. This viewing angle ensures the nav lights are visible to other traffic from the front and side until the aircraft passes by.

White Navigation Light
The tail mounted White Navigation Light is visible through an angle of 140 degrees. With this being less than 180 degrees (straight line), it ensures the white nav light becomes visible to other air traffic once the airplane is passed by, and travelling away. This white light would be visible from any location behind the aircraft.

Aircraft Right of Way
The Navigation Lights on an aircraft also help pilots to recognize the Air Law Rights of Way. If you think of the Red Light as a Stop Sign, and the Green Light as Go, then you can determine the right-of-way in the situation illustrated here.

When two aircraft are converging on approximately the same heading, the aircraft which has the other on its right must give way.

Aircraft A
The Pilot of Aircraft A (Airplane on the Left in the diagram) will see the Red Navigation Light on the Port Side Wing Tip of Aircraft B. Therefore, the Pilot of Aircraft A must Give-Way to the aircraft (B) on is right.

Aircraft B
The Pilot of Aircraft B (Airplane on the Right in the diagram) will see the Green Navigation Light on the Starboard Side Wing Tip of Aircraft A. Therefore, the Pilot of Aircraft B may continue on its course with the right of way.

Don’t be Dead Right!
Remember, Pilots are always responsible to avoid a collision, right of way or not. The Pilot In Command (PIC) of an aircraft that has the right-of-way shall, if there is any risk of collision, take such action as necessary to avoid collision. Just because you may have the right of way, you must still take any action necessary to avoid a collision.

Relative Position
The Red, Green and White Navigation Lights will help you to quickly and easily identify the relative position of other airplanes at night.

With understanding of the location and colours of these important navigation lights, you can determine the orientation of other aircraft in the sky.

You see some Steady Lights in the Sky. What’s the Position of that other Airplane?

• If you see both a Red and Green Light… You know the other airplane is coming at you.
• If you see just a White Light… You know the other airplane is flying away from you.
• If you see both a Red and White Light… You know the other airplane is moving from right to left as you see the Port side of the airplane.
• If you see both a Green and White Light… You know the other airplane is moving from left to right as you see the Starboard side of the airplane.

Navigation Lights help pilots to determine the relative position of other aircraft. See and be Seen!

Related Articles:

1. Aviation Light Gun Signals

Reciprocal Runways – 180 Degree Opposites

Runway Numbering
The diagram shown here displays a 4,000 foot long (75 foot wide) runway with two ends. Each end of the runway is labelled with a large number. The actual pavement would have these large numbers painted on the runway at the threshold for each end of the runway. In this example, we see the Runway Numbers 3 and 21.

Magnetic Direction
The runway number represent the first two digits of the runway’s actual three digit magnetic direction. Runways are oriented or pointed at angles with respect to the magnetic north pole. The magnetic north pole is where your compass points, and not the true north pole. The Runway Numbers are essentially the runway direction, rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees.

Reciprocal Runways
By now, you have probably figured out that the Runway Diagram shown here identifies two runways sharing the same pavement. There are two ends to the pavement, and each end is a Reciprocal Runway of its opposite end of the pavement. For instance, Runway 3 and Runway 21 on the diagram point in opposite directions. Runway 3 is at a 30 degree angle in relationship to the magnetic north pole, and Runway 21 is at a 210 degree angle. The difference between these two angles is 180 degrees. 30 + 180 = 210.

180 Degrees
When you are on a Runway, you can calculate the opposite direction (Reciprocal Runway) by adding or subtracting 180 degrees. Every circle has 360 degrees, and therefore 180 degrees is exactly half of the full rotation of a circle. As you see, Runway 3 (30 degrees) is paired with Runway 21 (210 degrees), and these two runways are 180 degree opposites.

Runway 28
Here we see Runway 28. As only the first two digits of the three digit magnetic direction are used for Runway Numbering, we realize this Runway is aligned at 280 degrees from Magnetic North.

Reciprocal of Runway 28?
You could calculate the Reciprocal of Runway 28 (280 degrees) by subtracting 180 degrees. This would be 100 degrees, or Runway 10. If a Runway is between 0 and 180 degrees, then add 180 degrees to calculate the Reciprocal runway. However, if the runway is above 180 degrees, simply subtract 180 degrees to calculate the reciprocal runway angle.

Math Made Easy!

Here’s a little trick…
If you love math, then you can continue to do it the old way, and mathematically add or subtract 180 degrees to calculate the Reciprocal Runway. However, for everyone else, here is a great way to quickly calculate reciprocal numbers in an instant, with very easy math! No more struggling with the addition or subtraction of 180 degrees. Now, you only need to be able to add or subtract by 2.

Shift by Two
It’s really easy. Just remember to shift each digit in the runway number by two. You must start with the Runway Number in 2 digit format (i.e. Runway 3 would be 03)

Now, you just shift each digit by 2. Basically, you add or subtract 2 for each digit in the number. One number in the pair will go up by two, and the other will go down by two.

Don’t worry, it’s not as difficult as it sounds
Just remember, you can’t exceed 360 degrees, so you need to be careful determining which digit goes up by two, and which digit goes down by two. But, both digits will need to be adjusted (shifted) by two.

A Step by Step Example
Starting with Runway 21. Subtract 2 from the first digit, and add 2 to the second digit. Each digit is shifted by two. The result will be 03 or Runway 3. Notice, we subtracted 2 from the first digit. If we added 2, the result would exceed 360 degrees, so we know the first digit must be reduced, and the second digit is therefore increased.

Reverse Example
This time, let’s try Runway 3. Remember, we must always start with a two digit number, so we use 03 as our starting number. We can’t subtract 2 from the first digit (0), or we will go negative. So this time we add two to the first digit, and then subtract two from the second digit. The result is 21. Pretty easy huh?

Just add 2 to one number, and subtract 2 from the other digit. Sometimes, you add to the first digit, but other times you need the reverse. As you practice, you will see how easy it becomes.

Some More Examples

• Runway 9 (Start with 09, add 2 to the first digit, and subtract 2 from the second digit) Result is 27
• Runway 27 (Subtract 2 from the first digit, and add 2 to the second digit) Result is 09 or Runway 9
• Runway 30 (Subtract 2 from the first digit, and add 2 to the second digit) Result is 12
• Runway 33 (Subtract 2 from the first digit, and add 2 to the second digit) Result is 15
• Runway 10 (This is a tricky one. If we subtract 2 from either digit, we will have a negative result) This is an exception, and you may want to use the old school math of adding 180 degrees for a result of Runway 28)
• Runway 15 (Add 2 to the first digit, and subtract 2 from the second digit) Result is 33

Easy, Fast and Fun!
Just shift the numbers by two, and you will be quickly calculating Reciprocal Runway Numbers with ease. Just remember these quick tips:

• Start with a 2 digit number (i.e. Runway 9 would be 09)
• Add 2 to one digit, and subtract 2 from the other digit (i.e. Shift one digit up by two, and the other down by 2)
• Don’t allow either digit to go negative, or to exceed 360 degrees. This helps you determine which digit needs to go up by 2, and which digit goes down by 2)

It’s either:
Add 2, Subtract 2 OR Subtract 2, Add 2.

Adding and subtracting 2 is always easier than adding or subtracting 180. Reciprocal Math calculations just became very easy.

Thanks for reading.

ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization

T is for Tango!
As a student pilot, you will need to learn how to talk like a pilot.

“Pilotspeak” includes a Phonetic Alphabet. This is based on the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) standardized phonetic alphabet. This may also be referred to as the NATO Phonetic Alphabet.

International Language 
English is the International Language of Aviation. Every tower handling international traffic must have at least one English speaking controller on duty at all times. Pilots around the globe will use the English language for ICAO Airport Identification, Aircraft Registration Numbers (N-Number), Runway Numbers, Taxiway identification, Headings, Altitudes, etc.

Controlled English Vocabulary
Everyone speaking Aviation English will use a standardized vocabulary to facilitate communication and avoid misunderstandings. For non English pilots, it would be difficult to learn and memorize all the English language numbers from 0 through 360. To make things easier, only numbers 0 – 9 will be used to reference runways, headings and altitudes.

Runway Two Eight
Runways are numbered based on their Magnetic Heading oriented to the Magnetic North Pole, where the compass points. (Not the True North Pole where the Earth’s Axis is located)

Runway numbers are essentially the runway’s heading or direction. This number is rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees. These numbers represent the first two digits of the runway’s actual three digit magnetic direction. For instance, Runway Two Eight (28) is located at an angle of 280 degrees magnetic. You notice this is referred to as Runway “Two-Eight” instead of Runway “Twenty-Eight”. As mentioned, numbers 0 – 360 are referenced using single digits 0 – 9 to make it easier for non English pilots.

Headings
Like Runways, Headings are also referenced using each single digit. For instance, heading 175 would be heading “one seven five” instead of “one hundred seventy five”.

ICAO / NATO Phonetic Alphabet
As we all know, some letters and numbers sound very much alike. This is especially true when speaking over aviation radios, or by non-English pilots. To help avoid confusion, the Phonetic Alphabet is used to ensure every letter and number has a unique and distinct phonetic pronunciation. By speaking the standardized phonetic word, and not just the individual letter or number, pilots are easily understood.

Bravo, Charlie, Echo
The letters B, C and E, all sound very much alike. It would be easy to confuse these letters over radio communications. Instead, the phonetic words Bravo, Charlie and Echo would be used to represent B, C and E. With these phonetic words, there is little chance of mixing up or confusing the letters.

Taxiway Signs
As we know, Runways are referenced by number. However, Taxiways are referenced by a letter of the Alphabet to avoid confusion with Runways.

Here we see the pilot is currently on Taxiway F (Foxtrot), and to the right is Taxiway D (Delta). The Light on Dark lettering indicates the current Taxiway the pilot is located on.

Using the Phonetic Alphabet, we would reference these Taxiways as Foxtrot and Delta.

Let’s get to know the ICAO / NATO Phonetic Alphabet.

Here’s the list:

Phonetic Alphabet

• A – Alpha
• B – Bravo
• C – Charlie
• D – Delta
• E – Echo
• F – Foxtrot
• G – Golf
• H – Hotel
• I – India
• J – Juliet
• K – Kilo
• L – Lima
• M – Mike
• N – November
• O – Oscar
• P – Papa
• Q – Quebec
• R – Romeo
• S – Sierra
• T – Tango
• U – Uniform
• V – Victor
• W – Whiskey
• X – Xray
• Y – Yankee
• Z – Zulu

Phonetic Numbers

• 1 – WUN
• 2 – TOO
• 3 – TREE
• 4 – FOW-er
• 5 – FIFE
• 6 – SIX
• 7 – SEV-en
• 8 – AIT
• 9 – NIN-er
• 0 – ZEE-RO

You’ll notice the Phonetic Numbers have unique or distinct sounds and they also rely on very specific pronunciation as emphasized above.

Practice makes Pefect!
I remember when I first learned the Phonetic Alphabet. Every time I saw a car license plate, I would quickly try to rattle off the Phonetic Letters. Before long, I was speaking phonetic like a pro.

Sample Taxi Clearance
Here’s a sample Taxi Clearance you might here. How’s your Pilotspeak?

“November Two Four Two Two Charlie, taxi to Runway Two Seven via Charlie, southwest to Delta, turn left; cross Runway Two Seven and make a left turn on Golf, over.”

Don’t wait until you hear such a clearance, before learning your Phonetic Alphabet!

Related Articles:

1. Reciprocal Runway Math Made Easy
2. Aviation Light Gun Signals

ATC Light Signals from the Tower

Traffic Light Signal
Even before you learned to drive, you knew about the Traffic Light Signal. Red for Stop. Yellow for Caution. Green for Go. Traffic on the streets would be chaos if drivers and pedestrians did not understand and obey these simple and well known traffic signals.

Quick Joke
If you know someone who thinks they are an expert driver, then tell them you want to give them a quick “Transport Canada” Driving test:

Start by telling them to spell the word “SPOT”. After they have spelt the word “S – P – O – T”, then ask them to say the word “SPOT” three times quickly. “Spot – Spot – Spot”. Next, ask them what they do when they come to a Green Light. Chances are, they will respond with “STOP”! (Hmmmm. For an expert driver, they should really learn the proper Traffic Signals!)

Back to Traffic Signals
Just like driving an automobile, Pilots also must learn and obey Traffic Light Signals. You might wonder why a Pilot would need to use Light Signals when they have a Radio for Communication. In fact, as a pilot you will seldom use light signals. However, radios sometimes stop working. In the event of a communications failure, you will need to fall back on Light Signals for communication.

ATC Light Signals
Air Traffic Control (ATC) will use a powerful Light Gun to Signal the Pilot in the event of Radio Communications failure or other emergency when the pilot does not have a working Radio in the aircraft. When a pilot is flying with No Radio (NORDO), they must watch for the Light Signals from the Control Tower.

Three Colours
Similar to an Automobile Traffic Light, the ATC Light Signals will use three different colours. However, instead of Red, Green and Yellow used by Automobile Traffic Signals, the ATC Light Signals use the colours Red, Green and White.

Red, Green, White
The Controller will direct a concentrated beam of light directly at an aircraft to communicate with the NORDO Pilot. The Light Gun uses three different light colours. The pilot may see Red, Green or White signals from the controller. Each colour has a specific meaning.

Steady vs. Flashing Light
In addition to specific colours (Red, Green or White) the light beam may be Steady or Flashing. The pilot must recognize both the colour and also the pattern (Steady or Flashing) to properly decode the Light Gun message from the Control Tower.

Ground vs. Air
The Light Signals also have different meanings depending if your aircraft is on the Surface (Ground), or if your aircraft is In Flight (Air). The ATC Light Signals Chart shown here details the meaning of each Light Signal for aircraft on the Ground and in the Air.

Light Signals on the Ground

Steady Green = GO
A Steady Green light signal on the ground means the same to an airplane as a green traffic light means to a car. GREEN means GO. The steady green light means the aircraft is cleared for takeoff. The pilot may proceed to takeoff now.

Flashing Green
A Flashing Green light signal on the ground means that you are cleared to Taxi. The Pilot has clearance to taxi the aircraft.

Steady Red = STOP
A Steady Red light signal on the ground means the same to an airplane as a red traffic light means to a car. RED means STOP. The steady red light means the aircraft must stop immediately. The controller wants the pilot to hold their position. When the time is right, the controller will provide a flashing green light or steady green light to communicate to the pilot they may continue to taxi, or they are cleared to takeoff.

Flashing Red
A Flashing Red light signal on the ground means the same to an airplane as flashing red lights mean to a car. In a car, if you saw a flashing red light behind you (i.e. Police car or other emergency vehicle), you would get off the road. Similarly, in an aircraft, the flashing red light means the pilot must Taxi Clear of the Runway in use. (i.e. Get off the Runway) If you have just landed on the runway, the controller might signal you with a Flashing Red light to have you clear the active runway. The controller wants you to find the nearest taxiway and get off the runway to allow other aircraft to use the runway.

Flashing White
The Flashing White signal only applies to aircraft on the surface (ground), and it does not apply to aircraft In Flight (Air). This indicates the pilot should return to their starting point on the airport. Possibly, the airport is too busy for NORDO operations, and the controller wants you to return your aircraft to the airport parking apron.

Alternating Red/Green
The Alternating Red/Green signal light is the same for both aircraft on the ground, and in the air. It is an important warning to the pilot to exercise extreme caution. Perhaps there are multiple NORDO aircraft in the area, and the controller is warning you to be particularly diligent.

Light Signals in the Air

Steady Green = GO
The Steady Green light signal to an aircraft in flight, is similar to the meaning of a Green Traffic Light for an automobile. GREEN means GO. This means the aircraft is cleared to land.

Flashing Green
A Flashing Green light signal to an aircraft in flight means you should return for landing. This is essentially a Go-Around command. As the light is flashing, you do not have clearance to land, so you must return for landing via Go-Around.

Steady Red
A Steady Red light always means stop. In your car, you always stop at a red traffic light. However, for an aircraft in flight, it is impossible to simply stop. You must continue flying, but the steady red light indicates you must give way to other aircraft and continue circling. If the air traffic is particularly heavy, it might not be possible for the controller to sequence your airplane into traffic for landing at the moment. The red light indicates you must hold in your present position until you are cleared to land. At that time you will then receive a steady green light to communicate your clearance to land.

Flashing Red
A Flashing Red light signal to an aircraft in flight indicates danger. Similar to the flashing red light beacons you see on obstacles such as TV Towers, the flashing red should warn you to stay away. Airport unsafe. Do not land.

Alternating Red/Green
As already mentioned, the Alternating Red/Green light signal means the same to aircraft on the surface and in flight. It is a warning to Exercise Extreme Caution.

Acknowledge Light Signals
Pilots should acknowledge that the light signal communications from the tower have been received. They acknowledge the instruction by wiggling their wings if they are in flight. If they are on the ground, they move the ailerons to signal acknowledgement. During night, the pilot can acknowledge the signals by flashing their landing or navigation lights.

In today’s world of communications, these light signals may seem primitive. However, when NORDO situations occur, these standardized light signals are a very effective means of communication. As a pilot, a back-up hand-held radio is always a good idea. But, if you ever find yourself without a radio for communications, you will need to know these important ATC (Air Traffic Control) Light Gun Signals used in Aviation.

Related Articles:

1. Aircraft Navigation Lights

What Flight Level should I cruise at?

Is Fifteen Feet O.K. for my Cruising Altitude?
Viper North owner Jeff “Biscuit” Lewis flys his Czechoslovakian designed Aero Vodochody L-29 Delfin jet at 15 feet above the deck. How’s that for a cruising altitude?

Pilots must be aware of Cruising Altitudes for both VFR (Visual Flight Rules) and IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) flight.

Automobile Analogy
Here’s a simple analogy. Car drivers know they have their own side of the road to travel on. There is even a yellow line separating the two sides of the road. Cars on each side of the road must stay on their own side to avoid a collision with oncoming traffic. Similarly, pilots use different cruising altitudes for vertical separation. These “roads” or “airways” in the sky are similar to traffic lanes to separate converging traffic.

Vertical Separation
In the air, pilots use vertical separation to help avoid collisions with other oncoming traffic. Pilots fly at different altitudes for different directions of flight. This altitude separation works like traffic lanes to keep aircraft flying in different directions from colliding into each other.

3,000 AGL
Designated Cruising Altitudes are required for flights operating at more than 3,000 feet Above Ground Level (AGL). When a pilot is operating at more than 3,000 feet above the surface, they are to fly at an altitude appropriate for their direction of flight. Airplanes flown VFR at 3,000 or less AGL are not required to fly at any particular cruising altitude.

VFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level
Except while holding in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less, or while turning, each person operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising flight more than 3,000 feet above the surface shall maintain the appropriate altitude or flight level prescribed below, unless otherwise authorized by ATC:

When operating below 18,000 feet MSL

• On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude +500 feet (such as 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500)
• On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude +500 feet (such as 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500)

When operating above 18,000 feet MSL, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC.

Hemispherical Cruising Altitudes

VFR Cruising Altitudes
VFR Pilots flying on a magnetic course (track) of 0 degrees through 179 degrees should fly any odd thousand foot MSL (Mean Sea Level) altitude plus 500 feet. Example VFR Cruising altitudes would be 3,500 feet, 5,500 feet, 7,500 feet etc.

VFR Pilots flying on a magnetic course (track) of 180 degrees through 359 degrees should fly any even thousand foot MSL altitude plus 500 feet. Example VFR Cruising altitudes would be 4,500 feet, 6,500 feet, 8,500 feet etc.

Vertical Separation
These VFR Cruising Altitudes provides a minimum of 1,000 feet clearance or vertical separation from other VFR airplanes heading in opposing directions.

These altitudes are based on your course or ground track, and not necessarily your heading being flown because of variance caused by cross-wind effects.

East is Odd
As a memory aid, I always think of people from out east speaking with an ‘Odd’ accent. East directions, from 0 degrees through 179 degrees represented on the right (or east) side of the diagram therefore use ODD 1,000 foot altitudes plus 500 feet. Conversely, the West directions, from 180 degrees through 359 degrees on the left (or west) side of the diagram use EVEN 1,000 foot altitudes plus 500 feet.

Who’s flying at the 1000′s?
If the VFR Pilots are cruising at the 1,000′s PLUS 500 feet, who is flying at each of the 1,000 foot levels? The IFR Pilots.

IFR Cruising Altitudes
IFR Pilots flying on a magnetic course (track) of 0 degrees through 179 degrees should fly on an odd thousand foot MSL altitude. Example IFR Cruising altitudes would be 5,000 feet, 7,000 feet, 9,000 feet etc.

IFR Pilots flying on a magnetic course (track) of 180 degrees through 359 degrees should fly on an even thousand foot MSL altitude. Example IFR Cruising altitudes would be 4,000 feet, 6,000 feet, 8,000 feet etc.

Remember, Cruising Altitudes are based on your course or ground track, and the pilot must consider cross-wind variances to their heading being flown.

Vertical Separation
These IFR Cruising Altitudes provides a minimum of 1,000 feet clearance or vertical separation from other IFR airplanes heading in opposing directions. In addition, we can see the IFR traffic is separated from the VFR traffic by minimum 500 feet.

See and Avoid
Pilots should always be actively scanning for other airplane traffic. The VFR pilot should see and avoid other air traffic. And, it is comforting to know there is a built-in vertical separation for safety based on these established cruising altitudes!

Flight Level (FL)
Sometimes altitudes in feet are abbreviated as Flight Levels. A Flight Level is a standard nominal altitude in hundreds of feet. The Flight Level altitudes are calculated from the International standard pressure datum of 1013.25 hPa (29.92 inHg), or the average sea-level pressure.  This may not be the same as the aircraft’s true altitude either above mean sea level or above ground level due to variances in atmospheric conditions (from standard pressure) where the airplane is being flown.

Flight levels are described by a number, which is this nominal altitude (“pressure altitude”) in feet, divided by 100. Therefore an apparent altitude of, for example, 35,000 feet is referred to as “flight level 350″.

Flight levels are usually designated in writing as FLxxx, where xxx is a one-to-three digit number indicating the pressure altitude in units of 100 feet.  For instance, FL200 indicates the pressure altitude of 20,000 feet. The phrase “flight level” makes it clear that this refers to the standardized pressure altitude.

At or Below 3,000
Remember, these cruising altitudes only apply to pilots operating aircraft at more than 3,000 feet AGL (Above Ground Level). Pilots operating at or below 3,000 feet AGL may fly at other altitudes. Also, these cruising altitudes do not apply when the airplane is turning or manoeuvring while practicing flight manoeuvres such as stalls, steep turns, and other activities.

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2. Airspeeds, V-Speeds, Vx, Vy, Vs0, Vs1, Va, Vno, Vfe, Vne…

Airspeed Limitations, Manoeuvring Speeds and Performance

Alphabet Soup?
Aviation Acronyms can seem like Alphabet Soup!

With Airspeeds and V-Speeds, there are dozens of Aviation Acronyms for the student pilot to learn and remember.

Your Aviation Acronym Decoder begins with some talk about Velocity.

V is for Velocity
Important aviation Airspeeds are identified and defined using standard terms. Scientists and Engineers refer to Speed as Velocity. Therefore these standard Airspeeds (Velocity) are defined as V-Speeds where the V is for Velocity.

Aircraft designers and manufacturers perform flight tests to help determine performance limitations of aircraft. The resulting flight test data is used to help determine specific best practice speeds for safe operation of the aircraft. Recommended Velocity Speeds (V-Speeds) are published and these airspeeds are relied on for best performance and safety of the aircraft. Pilots should be knowledgeable about the published V-Speeds for each type and configuration of aircraft they fly.

Pilot’s Operating Handbook
Pilots should consult the Pilot’s Operating Handbook, or POH, for the aircraft they fly. These important V-Speeds will be published in the POH (Information Manual) for their specific Aircraft type and model. 

Airspeed Indicator
Fortunately, the Airspeed Indicator in your airplane will have some of the more important V-Speeds highlighted or emphasized directly on the dial of the flight instrument. This helps the pilot to visually recognize these V-Speeds and easily determine how close they are to the V-Speeds while in flight.

General aviation aircraft depict the most commonly-used and most safety-critical airspeeds or V-Speeds on the Airspeed Indicator. These are displayed as color-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft’s airspeed indicator flight instrument.

White, Green, Yellow and Red
You will notice the colour-coded bands or arcs on the Airspeed Indicator. Pictured is a sample ‘Steam Gauge’ Airspeed Indicator. Let’s take a closer look, to determine some of these important V-Speeds. Remember, this is just an example, and the V-Speeds will differ based on the exact type, model and configuration of aircraft you fly.

The White Arc
The Flaps Operating Range is denoted by the White Arc. Flaps may only be used within this range of speeds.

Vs0
The beginning of the White Arc is the power off Stalling Speed with gear and full flaps extended, also known as Vs0. The Vs0 (Velocity Stall 0) represents the Stalling Speed of the aircraft configured for landing. (i.e. Gear Down and Flaps Down) An easy way to remember this is to think of the Velocity (V) of Stall (s) with everything hanging Out (0) or Vs0.

Vs and Vs1
Now that you are familiar with Vs0, it’s easy to remember Vs1. The beginning of the Green Arc is the power off Stalling Speed with the Gear and Flaps retracted. Vs is the Velocity (V) of the Stall (s), or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable. As a memory aid, Vs1 is the Velocity (V) of the Stall (s) with everything Inside (1 looks like the letter i for inside). This is the Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific configuration.

The lower ends of the Green Arc and the White Arc depict the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted (Vs1), and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended (Vs0), respectively. These Vs (Velocity of Stall) speeds are the stalling speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight.

Vfe
The Top of the White Arc depicts the Maximum Flap Extended Speed. This is referred to as Vfe for Velocity (V) with Flaps (f) Extended (e). This represents the maximum airspeed at which you may extend the flaps, or fly with them extended. The flaps may not be used above this range (White Arc) or possible structural damage may occur to the aircraft.

The Green Arc
The Green Arc on the Airspeed Indicator depicts the normal operating airspeed range. As we have learned, Vs is the Velocity (V) of the Stall (s) and the Vs or Vs1 speed is denoted by the beginning of the Green Arc. At the top end of the Green Arc, is the Vno.

Vno
As the Green Arc is the Normal Operating Range, the top of the green arc is the Velocity (V) of Normal (n) Operations (o) or Vno. This is the maximum structural cruising speed. Operation of the Aircraft at the Vno speed, and lower, is within the certified range for operations within gusts. The aircraft is certified to withstand substantial wind gusts without experiencing structural damage. Operations above Vno move into the Yellow Arc on the Airspeed Indicator. Do not exceed Vno, except in Smooth Air, and only with caution.

V-Speeds Designated
The Airspeed Indicator Flight Instrument shown here has some of the V-Speeds high-lighted. Standard colours and markings help pilots to immediately identify some of these very important V-Speeds. Click on the Airspeed Indicator for a larger view.

The Yellow Arc
Beyond the Green Arc, we see the Yellow Arc. The speed range marked by the Yellow Arc is the Caution Speed Range. The Airspeed range indicated by the Yellow Arc is for Smooth Air Only.

Operations above Vno (Top of the Green Arc) will bring you into the Caution Range of the Yellow Arc. Flight Operations in the Yellow speed range are to be conducted in Smooth Air only!

Vne
The Red Line at the top of the Yellow Arc is the Velocity (V) that you Never (n) Exceed (e). This is the Red Line of the Airspeed Indicator, and the Vne is the Maximum Speed the Aircraft should ever be operated in Smooth Air. Remember, the Yellow Arc is for Smooth Air Only. You should not exceed the Green Arc speed range unless the Air is Smooth and without gusts. Exceeding the Vne Airspeed can cause uncontrollable and destructive flutter, and cause serious or catastrophic failure of structural components on the aircraft. Aircraft designers include a slight safety margin, but do not risk or rely on this slim margin. The Vne is the Velocity (V) you Never (n) Exceed (e).

Other V-Speeds
There are other important V-Speeds, but they are not shown on the Airspeed Indicator Flight Instrument. The Pilot will need to be familiar with these other speeds, but they can’t simply look at the Airspeed Dial to determine these other V-Speeds.

Va
Manoeuvring Speed is found well below Vno. Manoeuvring Speed may be remembered as Velocity (V) of Acceleration (a) or Va. The pilot should not make full or abrupt control movements above this speed. In turbulence, you should always be at, or below, the Manoeuvring Speed (Va). The only way to ensure you will not damage the aircraft with full or abrupt control movement is to fly at or below this speed.

Retractable Gear Aircraft
Most student pilots will learn to fly on airplanes with fixed landing gear. However, if you fly an aircraft with Retractable Landing Gear, you will need to be aware of two more important V-Speeds. These are Vlo and Vle.

Vlo
Vlo is the Maximum Velocity (V) for Landing (l) gear Operation (o). Do not extend or retract the landing gear above this airspeed. When the landing gear is in transition, it is more vulnerable to damage from the effects of speed. However, once the landing gear is fully extended and locked, it may sustain higher airspeeds.

Vle
Vle is the Maximum Velocity (V) of Landing (l) gear Extended (e). Do not exceed this speed with the landing gear extended.

Glass Cockpits
The newer Glass Cockpits are ideal for presenting tremendous amounts of critical data to the Pilot in an organized and familiar manner.

This Garmin G1000 Primary Flight Display (PFD) may not look too much like the older Six Pack of ‘Steam Gauge’ Flight Instruments, but there are still many similarities. For instance, the Pilot previously accustomed to the Airspeed Indicator Dial will find similar colour coding on the Airspeed Indicator Tape Strip. Click on the glass cockpit image for a larger view.

Tape Strip
The Airspeed is typically indicated by a Tape Strip (Left Side of Glass Panel) that moves up and down to depict the Airspeed. The current speed is shown as a digital number. However, you will also see the familiar Green and Yellow Bars. From this familiar colour coding, the pilot can easily visualize some of these critical V-Speeds. The Glass Cockpit technology is incredible, and the pilot will be provided with considerable additional information including Ground Speed calculations and True Air Speed (TAS) calculations. You’ll learn more about TAS as you continue reading below.

Vx and Vy
Two easily confused Airspeeds are Vx and Vy. The student pilot must have these important airspeeds committed to memory very early in their flight instruction. These airspeeds will be demonstrated and explained. They are Best Rate of Climb (Vy) and Best Angle of Climb (Vx).

Best Rate of Climb (Vy)
After takeoff, the aircraft should normally be configured for the Best Rate of Climb. This will provide the best climb for the maximum gain in altitude in the shortest time possible. You will get to your selected cruising altitude in the shortest time possible. Altitude is your friend, and particularly after takeoff, you want to gain the maximum height above the ground in the least time possible. Vy provides you with the Best Rate of Climb.

Best Angle of Climb (Vx)
Occasionally, it may be necessary to gain the maximum altitude possible over the shortest distance on the ground. To achieve this, the pilot would use the Best Angle of Climb or Vx. This would be applicable if you needed to clear an obstacle or obstruction on the ground shortly after takeoff. The pilot would configure the aircraft for the Best Angle of Climb to gain the maximum altitude possible before reaching the obstacle (i.e. Tree) located beyond the runway.

Vx is slower than Vy. This makes sense, as Vx will have a slower forward speed. The slower forward speed of the airplane will provide more opportunity for altitude gain before reaching the obstacle to be cleared. An easy way to remember Vx vs. Vy, is to ask yourself which letter has more angles? The letter X has more angles than the letter Y. As such, you will always remember Vx is the Best Angle of Climb, and Vy is the Best Rate of Climb.

We’ve already looked at quite a few V-Speeds, and there are dozens more for the progressing pilot to master. We’ve touched upon some of the most important V-Speeds in you early flight training. Now that we have considered some V-Speeds, let’s look closer at some other types of Airspeed.

IAS, CAS and TAS
When you read the Airspeed on the Airspeed Indicator Flight Instrument, you are reading the Indicated Air Speed (IAS). This is simple. What you see on the dial, is the IAS.

For instance, if the Airspeed Indicator Needle is pointing to 85 knots, then the Indicated Airspeed (IAS) would obviously be 85 knots.

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
The Airspeed Indicator is subject to slight errors. These errors are caused by factors such as the placement of the Pitot Tube and Static Sources and flying configuration such as the degrees of flap extended. Your POH reference guide may be used to determine the amount of ‘Correction’ you need to calculate your Calibrated Airspeed. The difference between IAS and CAS may be slight, but your Aircraft Information Manual will outline the adjustments and assist you in determining your Calibrated Airspeed or CAS.

True Air Speed (TAS)
The IAS and CAS are still not your True Air Speed (TAS). To calculate TAS, you will need to factor in the Outside Air Temperature (OAT) and the Pressure Altitude. Some Airspeed Indicators have a moveable ring on the outer scale of the dial to assist with determining your TAS.

Air Density
At Sea Level, Air is very dense. This dense air helps the wings create lift, but there is also additional drag. As the aircraft ascends, the higher altitude air is less dense. This reduces drag, and allows the airplane to fly faster through the air. However, the less dense air does not ‘strike’ the Pitot Tube quite as hard, causing the Indicated Air Speed (IAS) to be less than the True Air Speed being flown through the less-dense, higher altitude air.

2% per 1,000 feet
For every 1,000 feet of altitude gain, True Air Speed (TAS) increases approximately 2% over Indicated Air Speed (IAS).

For example, if you were flying 10,000 feet above sea level, with an Indicated Air Speed of 100 knots, your True Air Speed (TAS) would be approximately 120 Knots. This is 20% faster than your Airspeed being indicated on your flight instruments. You simply take your Altitude above sea level (i.e. 10,000 feet) and increase your IAS by 2% for each 1,000 feet. (e.g. 2% times 10) This would result in a TAS of 120 knots, or a 20% increase of your IAS.

Your handy electronic Flight Computer and POH will help you accurately calculate your TAS for ground speed calculations.

As you can see, as a student pilot, you need to know quite a bit about Airspeeds, V-Speeds, IAS, CAS, TAS, and more.

Related Articles:

1. Six Pack – The Primary Flight Instruments

Transport Canada Written PPL Exam Prep

Study for the Transport Canada Written Exam
Aerotech, located in Mississauga, Ontario, has designed and produced a Complete Private Pilot Licence (PPL) Ground School Course. This interactive course is a CD based, user-paced, self-study program to help the student pilot study and prepare for the Transport Canada Written Exam.

Transport Canada Exam
Early in your student pilot flight training, you will begin your Private Pilot Ground School. Traditionally, this is approximately 45 hours of class-room training to develop your understanding of Aviation and Aeronautical general knowledge. You may now use the Aerotech Canadian Private Pilot Ground School Course on CD-ROM. This interactive Computer Based Training (CBT) will guide the student through the required Transport Canada PPL Ground School curriculum.

The Student Pilot must then pass the Transport Canada Written Exam. This is a knowledge based written exam covering the concepts and lessons covered in the PPL Ground School Course.

Transport Canada Exam Overview:

• 100 Multiple Choice Questions
• 3 Hour Time Limit
• Pass Mark of 60%
• Four Mandatory Subject Areas

The exam Candidate must achieve an overall pass mark of 60% on the entire exam, and also achieve a pass mark of 60% in each of the following Four Mandatory Subject Areas:

• AIR LAW: Air Law and Procedures
• NAVIGATION: Navigation and Radio Aids
• METEOROLOGY
• AERONAUTICS – GENERAL KNOWLEDGE: Airframes, Engines, and Systems; Theory of Flight; Flight Instruments; Flight Operations; Human Factors

Aerotech Private Pilot Ground School
The Aerotech PPL Ground School Course is well designed, following the Four Mandatory Subject Areas as outlined by Transport Canada. The course includes complete Study Notes of approximately 150 pages, and also four interactive CD-ROM’s for Computer Based Training (CBT).

The Study Notes exactly parallel the content of the CD based course, and the supplied notes also include supplemental reference material such as sample charts and reference tables.

There are four CD’s in the package, with each CD covering one of the 4 mandatory subject areas outlined. The companion Study Notes manual is also divided into the same four study areas. This logical break-down of the ground school material helps to keep things organized and easy to follow.

This self-paced study program was designed to fulfill the Transport Canada requirements of ground school training for the issue of a Canadian Private Pilot License (PPL). The Aerotech course allows the student pilot to study at their own pace, and without the restriction of having to attend pre-arranged classroom instruction. The course may also be used as an excellent supplement to the traditional classroom learning, or as a refresher course for pilots wanting to review essential course material from the comfort of their own home.

Aerotech Instructors
The purchase of the PPL Ground School Course includes additional Tutorial support available by email from dedicated Aerotech Instructors. As you proceed through your CD based ground school training, you now have access to essential tutorial support to answer questions or clarify any difficult topics you might encounter.

Upon completion of each major topic in the PPL Ground School Course, there is a sample test available to evaluate your understanding of the material. This will help you determine if you are prepared and ready to take your Transport Canada written examination. The student is instructed to request the sample (practice) test directly from Aerotech to evaluate their understanding of the course material covered. This is handled as an email request, allowing Aerotech to grade the practice test, and follow-up with the student to correct any mistakes. Aerotech interacts with the student to ensure proper understanding of the course material. When a student purchases the Aerotech CD-ROM Course, they will also receive email updates from Aerotech during the correspondence period to help keep the student current regarding potential new air regulations. This helps the student to keep current throughout their entire learning process.

Easy Course Navigation

The Aerotech PPL Ground School Course is designed for easy navigation and use. The student is easily guided through all the necessary topics, and a handy check list displays your progress and completed topics.

Menu Navigation
The Top Menu allows the student to quickly select the desired Chapter. From each Chapter, the student then has various Topic Selections. Within each Topic Selection, the student may easily and quickly page through the course content using a simple and easy to use Previous/Next paging links.

Each Topic Selection includes visual diagrams and illustrations on the left side of the screen, and the knowledge area text is displayed in the middle of the screen. The text is also narrated automatically, making learning easier and more effective. The student hears the information being taught, as they follow-along with the complete narrated text displayed next to the visuals.

A Picture is worth a Thousand Words!
The Course is well designed with many visual graphics. The Knowledge Areas include accompanying Visuals including diagrams, pictures and illustrations. These help the student to better grasp the concepts, and the excellent visuals improve learning, and help to build better retention of the material covered. The student can quickly understand the required concepts and the excellent visuals help to explain and emphasize the material.

Online Support
The Aerotech CD based material is a complete Multi-media, self-study Canadian Private Pilot Ground School course. Purchase of the course includes online support. The new 2010 Edition is now available!

Private Pilot Ground School Course Curriculum

AERONAUTICAL GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

• Licensing Requirements
• Airframes
• Aero Engines
• Theory of Flight
• Flight Instruments
• Weight and Balance
• Performance Charts
• Hazards to Flight
• Human Factors

AIR LAW

• Aerodromes
• Canadian Airspace
• VFR Weather Minima
• Rules of the Air
• Forms and Documents

METEOROLOGY

• Met Theory
• Weather Systems
• Obstructions to Vision
• Hazards to Aviation
• Aviation Weather

NAVIGATION

• Units and Measurements
• Aeronautical Charts
• E6B Flight Computer
• Canada Flight Supplement
• Plotting
• Navigation Log
• Radio Aids to Navigation

APPENDIX

• Sample Performance Charts
• Classification of Canadian Airspace
• Flight Plan / Itinerary
• Aviation Forecast Abbreviations
• GFA Weather
• CFS (Canadian Flight Supplement)
• Cross-Country Weather
• Navigation Log
• Navigation Quick Reference Chart
• Answers to Practice Calculations
• Navigation Log – Practice Cross-Country
• Exam Tips

Under $300
The Aerotech Canadian Private Pilot Ground School Course is priced at $279 CAD. This complete course will help the Student Pilot quickly prepare for the Transport Canada Written Exam, and it is an excellent self-paced study course.

Contact Aerotech to order your Canadian Private Pilot Ground School Course.

Aerotech
6-6855 Airport Road
Suite 159
Mississauga, ON
L4V 1Y9

Telephone: (416) 254-8331

Website: www.AerotechCanada.ca

Aerotech will be releasing their Instrument Rating (IFR) Course and Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL) soon!

Related Articles:

1. Private Pilot License – Written Exam Preparation
2. How I Aced the PSTAR Exam!
3. Tillsonburg Flying School

Cessna 172 Instrument Panel

Before the days of Glass Panels, this was a typical General Aviation Instrument Panel.

Even with the trend towards only Glass Cockpits, the basic Flight Instruments remain the same.

The Six Pack is not a half-dozen beers, and it’s not a well toned and muscled belly. Instead, Pilots know the 6-Pak refers to the six Primary Flight Instruments.

3 + 3 = 6
The 6 basic flight instruments are divided into two categories. Three instruments are connected to the aircraft’s Pitot Static Pressure System, and the other three are Gyro Instruments typically driven by the aircraft’s Vacuum system pump. It’s important for student pilots to recognize this difference. In the event of a partial system failure, the pilot will be better prepared when they recognize the specific instruments that may be affected.

The SIX PACK:

1. Airspeed Indicator (Pitot Static)
2. Attitude Indicator (Gyro)
3. Altimeter (Pitot Static)
4. Vertical Speed Indicator (Pitot Static)
5. Heading Indicator (Gyro)
6. Turn Coordinator (Gyro)

These six instruments are denoted by number on the Cessna 172 Instrument Panel above.

Every pilot must have a thorough understanding of these six flight instruments and the way they work. Pilots should have knowledge of each instrument’s characteristics and limitations. During flight, a pilot must interpret the information displayed on these six flight instruments to fly safely and within the limitations of the aircraft’s safe operating envelope.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these six flight instruments and how they work.

Pitot Static Instruments
The Pitot Static System relies on a Pitot Tube to measure the dynamic pressure due to the forward motion of the airplane through the air, and Static Vents to measure the static, outside barometric pressure as the airplane gains or loses altitude. The three flight instruments connected to the Pitot Static System include the Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, and Vertical Speed Indicator.

Gyroscopic Instruments
A Gyroscope is a rotor or spinning wheel, rotating at a high speed. Usually, this is powered by the Vacuum System Pump. Gyroscopic Inertia is the tendency of a rotating body to maintain its plane of rotation, known as Rigidity in Space. Gyroscopic Precision is the tendency of a rotating body to consistently react to a force being applied by turning in the direction of its rotation exactly 90 degrees to its axis. These principles of physics are used to make very precise Flight Instruments including the Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, and Turn Coordinator.

#1) Airspeed Indicator

The Airspeed Indicator measures the speed of the aircraft through the air, but really this is the speed at which the air is flowing over the airplane. And remember, this is not a measurement of ground speed. The dial is usually calibrated in Nautical miles known as KNOTS.

KNOTS vs. Miles
KNOTS are a measure of speed based on nautical, or sea miles. Aviation uses both nautical and statute miles for measuring distance and speed, but the Airspeed Indicator typically shows KNOTS.

Nautical Mile = 6,076 feet
Statute Mile = 5,280 feet
Therefore, 1 Nautical Mile distance = 1.15 Statute Mile distance

The airspeed indicator is connected to the Pitot Static System. To give a reading of speed through the air, the flight instrument measures the difference between the dynamic pressure in the Pitot Tube and the atmospheric pressure from the Static vent. When the airplane is standing still on the ground, the pressure in the two systems will be the same resulting in a reading of zero. However, when the airplane is travelling through the air, the dynamic pressure in the Pitot system will increase and a reading is registered.

Indicated Airspeed
The Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the reading displayed on the face of the instrument. The small windows at the top and bottom of the Airspeed Indicator are used for determining True Airspeed (TAS). Remember, the Airspeed Indicator displays the Indicated Air Speed (IAS), and adjustments are needed to calculate the Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) and True Airspeed (TAS).

Speed Ranges and limitations are marked on the Airspeed Indicator and are specific to the make and model of the aircraft. Different makes and models of airplanes will have the markings at different speeds based on limitations of each aircraft. Typically Green markings on instruments reflect normal operations, and Red markings reflect abnormal operations or limitations.

The Red Line
The speed marked by the Red Line is the Never Exceed Speed (Vne). This speed should never be exceeded in the Aircraft or structural damage may occur.

The Yellow Arc
The speed range marked by the Yellow Arc is the Caution Speed Range. Speed range indicated by the Yellow Arc is for Smooth Air Only.

The Green Arc
The Green Arc denotes the Normal Operating Airspeed Range.

The White Arc
The Flaps Operating Range is denoted by the White Arc. Flaps may only be used within this range of speeds.

#2) Attitude Indicator

The Attitude Indicator is also called the artificial horizon or the gyro horizon. This flight instrument depicts the position of the airplane in relation to the horizon. It shows whether the wings are level, and if the plane is climbing or descending, or flying straight and level. A pair of wings represents the attitude of the aircraft. Behind the aircraft is a ball. The top is blue, representing the sky, and the bottom half is usually brown, representing the ground. As the airplane manoeuvres in the air, the pair of wings will show the degree of bank and pitch attitude.

The Attitude Indicator is a Gyroscopic Instrument, and it uses a Gyroscope to stabilize a horizon bar which stays parallel to the natural horizon. The miniature airplane in the centre of the Attitude Indicator will pitch and bank around the horizon bar to indicate the airplanes current attitude relative to the horizon.

#3) Altimeter

The Altimeter measures the Altitude or height of the aircraft above Sea Level. Remember, ground elevation varies widely, so the Altimeter reading does not measure height about the Ground, but instead above Sea Level. The Pilot must be aware of the Ground elevation, to then calculate the height of the airplane above the Ground.

Similar to a clock, an Altimeter has three hands. The fastest moving hand reads in Hundreds of Feet. The shortest hand reads in Thousands of feet. The Longest hand, which moves the slowest, reads in Tens of Thousands of feet. (On some altimeters, the Tens of Thousands of feet is represented with the shortest hand, instead of the Longest Hand)

The Altimeter pictured here has a reading of 1,410 feet above sea level. The fastest moving hand (Hundreds) is between the 4 and 5, and the small hash marks represent 20 feet each. Therefore, this hand has a reading of 410 feet. The shortest hand (Thousands) is between the 1 and 2. Therefore, the current altitude would be 1,410.

The Altimeter reading is based on barometric pressure, and barometric pressure is constantly changing. This requires the altimeter to be set prior to every flight, and during flight as barometric pressure in your flying area changes.

#4) Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

The Rate of Climb and Rate of Descent are indicated on the Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI). This is measured in Feet Per Minute, and displayed in Hundreds of FPM.

The VSI flight instrument measures the vertical speed (vertical velocity, or rate of climb). This instrument is connected to the static air pressure system. There is a standard barometric pressure change with altitude changes, and this standard rate of change is calibrated to measure the aircraft’s change in altitude and rate of change.

The pilot relies on both the Altimeter and the Vertical Speed Indicator to monitor altitude and altitude changes. At a glance, the VSI shows the pilot if they are flying at a steady altitude, or if they are ascending or descending, and the rate at which their altitude is changing in feet per minute.

#5) Heading Indicator

The Heading Indicator is another Gyroscopic flight instrument. Sometimes known as the Directional Gyro or Heading Gyro, this instrument is the principal direction instrument used in flight.

The Heading Indicator is gyroscopically stabilized. Unlike the magnetic compass, the Directional Gyro is not as affected by banks, turns, and speed changes. However, the Heading Indicator is NOT a magnetic compass.

The Heading Indicator must be set according to the Magnetic Compass indication before takeoff, and occasionally adjusted to the Magnetic compass while the aircraft is in steady, level flight. Precision error must be corrected for at regular intervals of about 15 minutes by re-calibrating the Heading Indicator (HI) to the Magnetic Compass.

The outline of an aircraft is positioned over a 360 degree scale with markings for North, East, South and West. The larger markings indicate 10 degrees each, and the smaller markings denote 5 degree variations.

#6) Turn Coordinator

This is another Gyroscopic instrument. This instrument gives information about the direction and rate of a turn. Additionally, it indicates if the turn is being flown in coordinated flight. If the aircraft is slipping or skidding during a turn, the ball (or inclinometer) in the bottom portion of the Turn Coordinator will not be centred. During a coordinated turn, the ball will remain centered. If the ball is not centered, the pilot must adjust the turn by using more or less rudder to correct for adverse yaw.

Standard Rate Turn
The white lines indicate the bank amount for a Standard Rate Turn. The turn indicator indicates the rate of turn, and not the amount of turn. A Standard Rate Turn, or Rate One Turn, will give a standard rate of turn of 3 degrees per second. Therefore, a 360 degree turn will be exactly 2 minutes. This allows the pilot to determine by time, the degrees of turn. For instance, a pilot could use a standard rate of turn for 60 seconds, and confidently know they have changed their course by 180 degrees based on 3 degrees per second. This becomes particularly important when pilots begin Instrument flying.

Every Pilot needs to have a complete and proper understanding of the Six Pack – The Primary Flight Instruments.

Related Articles:

1. Airspeeds, V-Speeds, Vx, Vy, Vs0, Vs1, Va, Vno, Vfe, Vne…

Pass the Private Pilot PSTAR Exam with Flying Colours!

PSTAR Exam
Before you can SOLO, a Student Pilot must pass the written Transport Canada PSTAR Exam. This exam tests the student pilot’s knowledge of Air Regulations and Air Traffic Control Procedures. This ensures the student has a sufficient understanding of the necessary CARs (Canadian Aviation Regulations) and AIMs (Aeronautical Information Manual) before flying without their instructor.

PSTAR: Pre Solo Test of Air Regulations

The Pass Mark is 90%
Don’t panic. It may sound scary, but with some practice and hard work, the 90% pass mark should not intimidate you.

PSSST? Want an advance copy of the Exam?
I know what you are thinking… but please don’t get the wrong idea. In fact, Transport Canada publishes a study guide with 200 sample questions. This study and reference guide is designed to assist applicants in preparing for the PSTAR. Click here to browse the PSTAR study and reference guide.

The PSTAR guide is broken into 14 sections, including 200 questions. For your PSTAR examination, you will be given a sampling of 50 of these questions. Your written exam will include 50 questions from the pool of the 200 published questions.

The PSTAR exam is designed to test the student pilot’s knowledge in the following subject areas:

• Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)
• Air Traffic Control Clearances and Instructions
• Air Traffic Control procedures as they apply to the control of VFR traffic at controlled airports
• Air Traffic procedures at uncontrolled airports and aerodromes
• Special VFR Regulations
• Aeronautical Information Circulars
• NOTAMs

The PSTAR study and reference guide includes a detailed reference section directing the student to the appropriate regulations to answer each question.

Question References
The references for each sample question will refer the student to the particular areas of the regulations the student should understand to correctly answer each question. Applicants should take the time to research the references provided for each sample question. This will help the student to determine the correct response to each question, and reinforce learning of the regulations. Do not solicit answers to the questions from others, until you have personally researched the applicable references first. If the student can determine the correct answer on their own, he or she will be much better prepared. A student should not be provided with the correct answers for the purpose of memorizing or resorting to rote learning.

14 Categories
The PSTAR study guide is divided into 14 categories including:

1. Collision Avoidance
2. Visual Signals
3. Communications
4. Aerodromes
5. Equipment
6. Pilot Responsibilities
7. Wake Turbulence
8. Aeromedical
9. Flight Plans and Flight Itineraries
10. Clearances and Instructions
11. Aircraft Operations
12. Regulations – General Air Space
13. Controlled Airspace
14. Aviation Occurrences

For best preparation, download the PSTAR study guide, and then look-up each correct answer by reviewing the references provided. Once you have researched the correct answers to the 200 questions, it will then be easy to review these questions over a few days. I found it very helpful to study with a fellow student pilot, and we quizzed each other. The day of the exam, I pre-tested myself by going through all 200 questions. A couple of hours later, when I wrote the exam, I found it easy to score 100%.

Here is a sample question for you now:

When an arriving aircraft is cleared “to the circuit”, the pilot should interpret this to mean join the circuit:

1. on the downwind leg.
2. from the upwind side of the runway in all cases.
3. on base leg if convenient.
4. on final for a straight in approach.

(Study Reference: TC AIM-RAC 4. 4. 2 – Initial Clearance)

Good Luck!

Related Articles:

1. Private Pilot License – Written Exam Preparation
2. Aerotech Private Pilot Ground School Course